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#bcplayer-gallery .jw-wrapper:before, body.macworld .embed-container #bcplayer-gallery .jw-wrapper:before { position: absolute; top: -35px; height: 35px; line-height: 28px; box-sizing: border-box; text-transform: none; padding: 4px; padding-left: 8px; width: 100%; font-size: 20px; border-top: 1px solid #3b2c1c; border-left: 1px solid #3b2c1c; border-right: 1px solid #3b2c1c; background-color: #3b2c1c; display: inline-block; background-image: url("https://alt.idgesg.net/images/logos/nww-logo-video.svg"); content: ' '; background-size: auto 20px; background-repeat: no-repeat; background-position: 8px center; } body.techhive .embed-container > div #bcplayer-gallery .jw-logo.jw-logo-bottom-right, body.macworld .embed-container > div #bcplayer-gallery .jw-logo.jw-logo-bottom-right { display: none; } body.techhive #bcplayer-gallery.jwplayer.jw-flag-floating .jw-float-icon, body.macworld #bcplayer-gallery.jwplayer.jw-flag-floating .jw-float-icon { display: inline-block !important; color: #ffffff; top: -30px; right: -15px; } body.techhive #bcplayer-gallery.jwplayer.jw-flag-floating .jw-float-icon:hover, body.macworld #bcplayer-gallery.jwplayer.jw-flag-floating .jw-float-icon:hover { color: #ffffff; } body.techhive #bcplayer-gallery.jwplayer.jw-flag-floating .jw-controls, body.macworld #bcplayer-gallery.jwplayer.jw-flag-floating .jw-controls { overflow: visible; } </style> <div class="ad placement">  <div id="inread" class=" ad-container"></div>  </div> <div id="drr-container" class="cat no-primary-image" itemprop="articleBody"> <p>随着SSL (Secure Socket Layer, SSL)虚拟专用网络(Virtual Private Network, VPN)技术的成熟和近年来的快速部署，它得到了网络和it管理员的关注，他们正在寻找远程访问VPN解决方案，提供无处不存在的访问和低成本的部署和管理。目前，SSL VPN技术还没有官方标准;不同的供应商使用不同的实现。本章将详细介绍SSL VPN技术的发展，帮助您理解该技术是如何工作的。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <h2>SSL vpn的加密构建模块<GydF4y2Ba/h2> <p>VPN通过公共网络携带私人流量。安全的VPN符合以下基本要求：<GydF4y2Ba/p> <ul> <li><p><strong>身份验证<GydF4y2Ba/strong>保证VPN实体与预期方通信。认证可以应用于VPN设备或VPN用户。例如，在远程访问VPN中，VPN头端设备可以验证用户PC以确保它确实是拥有它用于连接到集中器的IP地址的PC。集中器还可以验证使用PC的最终用户基于用户的信息正确分配用户权限。<GydF4y2Ba/p></li> <li><p><strong>保密<GydF4y2Ba/strong>通过加密数据来确保数据的隐私。<GydF4y2Ba/p></li> <li><p><strong>消息完整性<GydF4y2Ba/strong>保证数据的内容在传输期间没有被修改。<GydF4y2Ba/p></li> </ul> <p>以下部分检查如何通过使用各种加密算法满足这些要求。已经熟悉这些加密算法的读者可以跳过这些部分并直接移动到SSL部分。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <div id="editorialfakesidebardiv" class="fakesidebar fakesidebar-auto"></div> <h2>哈希和消息完整性验证<GydF4y2Ba/h2> <p>下面的部分描述了散列及其在密码学中的应用。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <h4>哈希<GydF4y2Ba/h4> <p>哈希在安全系统中起着重要的作用，它保证了传输信息的完整性。哈希算法将变长文本字段转换为固定大小的字符串。安全系统中使用的哈希算法有以下两个特性:<GydF4y2Ba/p> <ul> <li><p><strong>单向散列机制:<GydF4y2Ba/strong>这意味着，在给定哈希输出的情况下，很难反转哈希函数以获得原始消息。<GydF4y2Ba/p></li> <li><p><strong>无碰撞输出:<GydF4y2Ba/strong>这意味着对于散列算法来说，在计算上无法找到具有相同散列输出的任何两条消息。<GydF4y2Ba/p></li> </ul> <p>由于这些属性，散列也被称为消息摘要或数字指纹。人们可以从一个大文档生成一个小的哈希输出，并使用哈希输出作为文档的数字指纹。然后，可以使用这个数字指纹来确保消息在通过不安全的通道传输期间没有被篡改。此外，从数字指纹来看，不可能透露原始信息的内容。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <aside class="nativo-promo nativo-promo-1 smartphone" id=""></aside> <p>到目前为止，最常用的加密散列算法是消息摘要算法5 (MD5)和安全散列算法1 (SHA-1)。这两种算法都被认为是单向的强无碰撞散列算法。MD5有128位输出，SHA-1有160位输出。由于SHA-1更大，通常被认为比MD5更安全，但计算代价更高。在当今网络的硬件和软件实现中，性能差异通常不是问题。因此，SHA-1是VPN部署时首选的散列算法。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <h4>消息身份验证代码<GydF4y2Ba/h4> <p>消息认证码MAC (Message authentication code)是一种加密校验和，用于保证消息在传输过程中的完整性。要生成MAC，可以使用加密算法(如DES)或散列算法。散列算法通常比加密算法快得多，因此基于散列的MAC (HMAC)是最流行的方法。HMAC是一个键控散列函数。它是这样工作的:为消息M生成HMAC，你需要选择两个系统参数，一个哈希函数H(通常是MD5或SHA-1)和一个密钥k。消息的HMAC计算如下:<GydF4y2Ba/p> <aside class="nativo-promo nativo-promo-1 tablet desktop" id=""></aside> <blockquote> <p>HMAC(K,M) = H(K XOR opad,H (K XOR ipad,M))<GydF4y2Ba/p> </blockquote> <p>其中，opad是字符串0X5c, ipad是字符串0x36。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <p>在加密系统中，这里使用的密钥K通常是在两个对等体之间的密钥协商和建立过程中生成的。请注意，两级散列使HMAC函数比简单的键散列函数安全得多。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <p><a href="http://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/article/nww/2008/10/02fig01-100277993-orig.jpg">图2 - 1<GydF4y2Ba/a>说明了HMAC如何在消息的发送方和接收方之间发挥作用。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <p><a href="http://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/article/nww/2008/10/02fig01-100277993-orig.jpg"><img alt="" height="54" width="100" data-original="https://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/article/nww/2008/10/th02fig01-100277981-orig.jpg" class="lazy" loading="lazy"></a></p> <aside class="nativo-promo nativo-promo-2 tablet desktop smartphone" id=""></aside> <p><a href="http://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/article/nww/2008/10/02fig01-100277993-orig.jpg"><strong>图2 - 1<GydF4y2Ba/strong></a></p> <p>HMAC<GydF4y2Ba/p> <blockquote> <hr> <p><b>MD5和SHA-1的安全性<GydF4y2Ba/b>包括王小云在内的一群中国密码学家最近进行的研究表明，MD5和SHA-1并非没有碰撞，已经开发出比暴力破解更快发现碰撞的算法。例如，SHA-1有一个160位的输出，所以如果您散列2<GydF4y2Basup>80<GydF4y2Ba/sup>随机消息，您将发现一对消息具有相同的散列输出。三位中国密码学家证明了他们可以发现SHA-1与sha - 2之间的碰撞<GydF4y2Basup>69<GydF4y2Ba/sup>操作，比使用蛮力快2000倍。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <p>Bruce Schneier在他的博客(<GydF4y2Baa href="http://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2005/02/cryptanalysis_o.html" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2005/02/cryptanalysis_o.html<GydF4y2Ba/a>)和Eric Rescorla在<GydF4y2Baa href="http://www.rtfm.com/movabletype/archives/2004_08.html" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://www.rtfm.com/movabletype/archives/2004_08.html#001059.<GydF4y2Ba/a>．<GydF4y2Ba/p> <p>这里是一个简短的总结:<GydF4y2Ba/p> <ul> <li><p>该攻击威胁了数字证书中哈希算法所提供的不可抵赖性。<GydF4y2Ba/p></li> <li><p>据信，HMAC对于这次攻击仍然是安全的。<GydF4y2Ba/p></li> <li><p>以目前的技术来看，目前的攻击还远远没有可行性。<GydF4y2Ba/p></li> </ul> <p>这些发现推动行业开发更安全的散列算法，如SHA-256或其他加密方法。有关SHA-2的更多详情，请浏览<GydF4y2Baa href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SHA-2" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SHA-2<GydF4y2Ba/a>．<GydF4y2Ba/p> <hr> </blockquote> <h2>加密<GydF4y2Ba/h2> <p>加密算法将明文转换成密文。与散列不同，加密算法需要密钥进行加密和解密。主要有两种加密算法:<GydF4y2Ba/p> <ul> <li><p><strong>对称加密:<GydF4y2Ba/strong>使用相同的密钥进行加密和解密。它也被称为密钥密码学。对称算法通常用于加密消息的内容。对称加密算法主要有两种:<GydF4y2Ba/p><p>—流密码，如RC4<GydF4y2Ba/p><p>- 块密码，如des，triple des（3Des）和高级加密标准（AES）<GydF4y2Ba/p></li> <li><p><strong>非对称加密:<GydF4y2Ba/strong>使用不同的键进行加密和解密。不对称加密也称为公钥加密。非对称加密系统由两个计算相关的密钥组成。一个已知的公共领域的一个称为公钥;另一个仅仅是关键对的所有者。根据公共和私钥对的使用，不对称算法可用于加密或认证目的。<GydF4y2Baa href="http://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/article/nww/2008/10/02fig02-100277994-orig.jpg">图2 - 2<GydF4y2Ba/a>说明了非对称算法的使用。考虑Alice和Bob的例子，他们希望使用非对称算法进行安全通信。出于加密目的，Alice将使用Bob的公钥加密消息，并将密文发送给Bob。收到密文后，Bob(他是相应私钥的唯一所有者)就可以用他的私钥解密消息。出于身份验证的目的，Alice将使用她自己的私钥加密(或签名)消息。像Bob这样的其他人可以使用Alice的公钥来验证消息的真实性，这是唯一匹配签名私钥的密钥。加密系统中非对称算法的实际使用还涉及到其他组件。我们将在接下来的几节中讨论它们。<GydF4y2Ba/p></li> </ul> <p>由于对称算法比非对称算法快得多，数字认证或密钥管理比非对称算法更常用于数据加密。非对称算法的流行例子是Diffie-Hellman (DH)算法和Rivest, Shamir, and Adelman (RSA)算法。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <p><a href="http://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/article/nww/2008/10/02fig02-100277994-orig.jpg"><img alt="" height="77" width="100" data-original="https://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/article/nww/2008/10/th02fig02-100277982-orig.jpg" class="lazy" loading="lazy"></a></p> <p><a href="http://images.techhive.com/images/idge/imported/article/nww/2008/10/02fig02-100277994-orig.jpg"><strong>图2 - 2<GydF4y2Ba/strong></a></p> <p>非对称算法的应用<GydF4y2Ba/p> <h4>RC4.<GydF4y2Ba/h4> <p>由Ron Rivest于1987年设计为RSA安全性，RC4是最广泛使用的流密码。由于其速度和简单性，RC4已部署在许多应用程序中，例如SSL协议和有线等效的隐私（WEP）协议，用于保护无线网络流量。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <p>作为流密码，RC4适用于纯文本数据的位，并通过用纯文本XORINGSTREAD将它们加密其中一个。通过将加密密钥和初始化向量（IV）通过伪ANDOM数发生器来生成keyStream。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <p>对于SSL，大多数Web浏览器支持RC4加密，具有两个不同的键尺寸：RC4-40Bit和RC4-128Bit。较新的浏览器（如Internet Explorer 7.0和Firefox）已开始支持更强大的密码，如AES。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <h4>DES和3 DES<GydF4y2Ba/h4> <p>数据加密标准DES (Data Encryption Standard)是目前应用最广泛的对称加密算法。DES是一种工作在8字节数据块上的64位块密码。输出密码块具有相同的8字节长度。在解密端，使用相同的密钥反向应用相同的算法。由于需要奇偶校验位，DES的有效密钥强度为56位。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <p>要加密超过DES块大小的消息，可以使用特定操作模式链接各个密码块。有各种各样的操作模式，例如电气代码簿（ECB），密码块链式（CBC），等等。CBC模式是商业实现中常用的操作模式。在CBC模式下，每个密文本块与下一个普通文本块进行加密，从而使所有块依赖于所有先前的块。第一个数据块与IV XORED。由于其额外的XOR步骤，CBC模式与ECB模式相比增加了更多安全性。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <p>自IBM在上世纪70年代设计DES算法以来，多年来一直拒绝进行大胆的加密分析。然而，它的56位密钥长度太短，而且随着近年来消费者级系统的计算能力迅速增加，它变得越来越弱。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <p>3DES解决了DES的关键长度问题。3DES使用三组键执行DES三次，总共168位键长。要执行3DES，流行的操作是加密 - 解密加密（EDE）。也就是说，DES使用键1加密消息，使用键2解密消息，最后，使用键3加密消息。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <p>AES是SSL v3和传输层安全(Transport Layer Security, TLS)的密码选项之一。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <h4>AES<GydF4y2Ba/h4> <p>为了取代老化的DES标准，国家标准与技术研究所(NIST)于1997年要求提交高级加密标准(AES)。在MARS、Twofish、Serpent、Rijndael和RC6等候选标准中，Rijndael被选为最终标准。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <p>AES也是一种分组密码，工作在128位数据块上，密钥大小为128、192和256位。有关AES的更多信息可在以下网址找到:<GydF4y2Baa href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Encryption_Standard" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Encryption_Standard<GydF4y2Ba/a>．<GydF4y2Ba/p> <p>作为一种新的联邦标准，一个不如3DES计算密集和加密，而且AES在供应商的实施中迅速添加，并在VPN网络中部署。目前，许多供应商也支持AES硬件加速。AES是SSL V3和TLS的密码选项之一。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <h4>diffie - hellman<GydF4y2Ba/h4> <p>在1976年出版，Diffie-Hellman（DH）是第一个发表的公共关键算法。Diffie-Hellman是一个关键协议议定书，使沟通方能够就没有任何先前已知的秘密的共享秘密达成一致意见。Diffie-Hellman通常用于关键交换和VPN隧道的建立阶段。Diffie-Hellman算法工作如下：<GydF4y2Ba/p> <ol> <li><p>沟通双方同意两个系统参数：大型素数<GydF4y2Baem>P.<GydF4y2Ba/em>和一台发电机<GydF4y2Baem>G<GydF4y2Ba/em>．选择这些是以任何值选择的<GydF4y2Baem>V.<GydF4y2Ba/em><<GydF4y2Baem>P.<GydF4y2Ba/em>，就存在一个价值<GydF4y2Baem>W.<GydF4y2Ba/em>以便<GydF4y2Baem>G<GydF4y2Basup>W.<GydF4y2Ba/sup></em>国防部<GydF4y2Baem>P.<GydF4y2Ba/em>=<GydF4y2Baem>V.<GydF4y2Ba/em>．这个需求,<GydF4y2Baem>G<GydF4y2Ba/em>可以用来生成从1到所有的数字吗<GydF4y2Baem>P.<GydF4y2Ba/em>1。<GydF4y2Ba/p></li> <li><p>每个通信方，比如X和Y，都会生成一个私钥，<GydF4y2Baem>X<GydF4y2Ba/em>和<GydF4y2Baem>y<GydF4y2Ba/em>，每个都是小于的随机数<GydF4y2Baem>P.<GydF4y2Ba/em>．为了计算相应的公钥，X<GydF4y2Basub><em>X<GydF4y2Ba/em></sub>和Y<GydF4y2Basub><em>y<GydF4y2Ba/em></sub>，使用以下公式：<GydF4y2Ba/p><p>—X方的公钥:X<GydF4y2Basub><em>X<GydF4y2Ba/em></sub>=<GydF4y2Baem>G<GydF4y2Basup>X<GydF4y2Ba/sup></em>国防部<GydF4y2Baem>P.<GydF4y2Ba/em></p><p>—Y方公钥:Y<GydF4y2Basub><em>y<GydF4y2Ba/em></sub>=<GydF4y2Baem>G<GydF4y2Basup>y<GydF4y2Ba/sup></em>国防部<GydF4y2Baem>P.<GydF4y2Ba/em></p></li> <li><p>然后，通信双方在不安全的通道上交换公钥。双方在收到对方的DH公钥后，使用如下公式计算共享密钥(SS):<GydF4y2Ba/p><p>派对x：ss =（y<GydF4y2Basub><em>y<GydF4y2Ba/em></sub>）<GydF4y2Baem><sup>X<GydF4y2Ba/sup></em>国防部<GydF4y2Baem>P.<GydF4y2Ba/em>=<GydF4y2Baem>G<GydF4y2Basup>yx<GydF4y2Ba/sup></em>国防部<GydF4y2Baem>P.<GydF4y2Ba/em></p><p>Y方:SS = (X<GydF4y2Basub><em>X<GydF4y2Ba/em></sub>）<GydF4y2Baem><sup>y<GydF4y2Ba/sup></em>国防部<GydF4y2Baem>P.<GydF4y2Ba/em>=<GydF4y2Baem>G<GydF4y2Basup>xy<GydF4y2Ba/sup></em>国防部<GydF4y2Baem>P.<GydF4y2Ba/em></p></li> </ol> <p>双方都提出了同样的共同秘密。<GydF4y2Ba/p> <p>DH侧需要共享系统参数<GydF4y2Baem>P.<GydF4y2Ba/em>和<GydF4y2Baem>G<GydF4y2Ba/em>，它被称为DH组参数。以下是几个具有不同的常见DH组<GydF4y2Baem>P.<GydF4y2Ba/em>：<GydF4y2Ba/p> <ul> <li><p>组1:768位模量<GydF4y2Ba/p></li> <li><p>第2组：1024位模量<GydF4y2Ba/p></li> <li><p>第5组：1536位模量<GydF4y2Ba/p></li> </ul> <p>需要注意的是，在DH公钥交换过程中，没有定义认证过程。这可以确保通信各方从目标方获得正确的公钥。因此，DH容易受到中间人攻击，攻击者可以拦截通信信道，欺骗通信双方的身份，分别与X方和Y方进行DH交换。因此，攻击者分别与X和Y建立两个共享秘密，并利用这些共享秘密进一步拦截受DH秘密保护的通信双方之间的通信。通过身份验证的DH交换可以减轻这个漏洞。<GydF4y2Ba/p> </div> <div class="apart-alt tags"> <span class="related">相关:<GydF4y2Ba/span> <ul> <li><a class="edition-link-url primary-cat-url2" href="//m.amiribrahem.com/category/networking"><span class="primary-cat-name2">网络<GydF4y2Ba/span></a></li> </ul> </div> <section class="pagination"> <span 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